(i) The price of the stock in the binomial model at time $r, 1 \leqslant r \leqslant n$, is $S_{r}=S_{0} \prod_{j=1}^{r} Y_{j}$, where $Y_{1}, Y_{2}, \ldots, Y_{n}$ are independent, identically-distributed random variables with $\mathbb{P}\left(Y_{1}=u\right)=p=1-\mathbb{P}\left(Y_{1}=d\right)$ and the initial price $S_{0}$ is a constant. Denote the fixed interest rate on the bank account by $\rho$, where $u>1+\rho>d>0$, and let the discount factor $\alpha=1 /(1+\rho)$. Determine the unique value $p=\bar{p}$ for which the sequence $\left\{\alpha^{r} S_{r}, 0 \leqslant r \leqslant n\right\}$ is a martingale.

Explain briefly the significance of $\bar{p}$ for the pricing of contingent claims in the model.

(ii) Let $T_{a}$ denote the first time that a standard Brownian motion reaches the level $a>0$. Prove that for $t>0$,

$$\mathbb{P}\left(T_{a} \leqslant t\right)=2[1-\Phi(a / \sqrt{t})],$$

where $\Phi$ is the standard normal distribution function.

Suppose that $A_{t}$ and $B_{t}$ represent the prices at time $t$ of two different stocks with initial prices 1 and 2 , respectively; the prices evolve so that they may be represented as $A_{t}=e^{\sigma_{1} X_{t}+\mu t}$ and $B_{t}=2 e^{\sigma_{2} Y_{t}+\mu t}$, respectively, where $\left\{X_{t}\right\}_{t \geqslant 0}$ and $\left\{Y_{t}\right\}_{t \geqslant 0}$ are independent standard Brownian motions and $\sigma_{1}, \sigma_{2}$ and $\mu$ are constants. Let $T$ denote the first time, if ever, that the prices of the two stocks are the same. Determine $\mathbb{P}(T \leqslant t)$, for $t>0$.