For an ideal gas of bosons, the average occupation number can be expressed as

$$\bar{n}_{k}=\frac{g_{k}}{e^{\left(E_{k}-\mu\right) / k T}-1},$$

where $g_{k}$ has been included to account for the degeneracy of the energy level $E_{k}$. In the approximation in which a discrete set of energies $E_{k}$ is replaced with a continuous set with momentum $p$, the density of one-particle states with momentum in the range $p$ to $p+d p$ is $g(p) d p$. Explain briefly why

$$g(p) \propto p^{2} V,$$

where $V$ is the volume of the gas. Using this formula with equation $(*)$, obtain an expression for the total energy density $\epsilon=E / V$ of an ultra-relativistic gas of bosons at zero chemical potential as an integral over $p$. Hence show that

$$\epsilon \propto T^{\alpha}$$

where $\alpha$ is a number you should find. Why does this formula apply to photons?

Prior to a time $t \sim 100,000$ years, the universe was filled with a gas of photons and non-relativistic free electrons and protons. Subsequently, at around $t \sim 400,000$ years, the protons and electrons began combining to form neutral hydrogen,

$$p+e^{-} \leftrightarrow H+\gamma$$

Deduce Saha's equation for this recombination process stating clearly the steps required:

$$\frac{n_{\mathrm{e}}^{2}}{n_{\mathrm{H}}}=\left(\frac{2 \pi m_{\mathrm{e}} k T}{h^{2}}\right)^{3 / 2} \exp (-I / k T)$$

where $I$ is the ionization energy of hydrogen. [Note that the equilibrium number density of a non-relativistic species $\left(k T \ll m c^{2}\right)$ is given by $n=g_{s}\left(\frac{2 \pi m k T}{h^{2}}\right)^{3 / 2} \exp \left[\left(\mu-m c^{2}\right) / k T\right]$, while the photon number density is $n_{\gamma}=16 \pi \zeta(3)\left(\frac{k T}{h c}\right)^{3}$, where $\left.\zeta(3) \approx 1.20 \ldots\right]$

Consider now the fractional ionization $X_{\mathrm{e}}=n_{\mathrm{e}} / n_{\mathrm{B}}$, where $n_{B}=n_{\mathrm{p}}+n_{\mathrm{H}}=\eta n_{\gamma}$ is the baryon number of the universe and $\eta$ is the baryon-to-photon ratio. Find an expression for the ratio

$$\left(1-X_{\mathrm{e}}\right) / X_{\mathrm{e}}^{2}$$

in terms only of $k T$ and constants such as $\eta$ and $I$. One might expect neutral hydrogen to form at a temperature given by $k T \approx I \approx 13 \mathrm{eV}$, but instead in our universe it forms at the much lower temperature $k T \approx 0.3 \mathrm{eV}$. Briefly explain why.