(a) Define and discuss the concept of the cosmological horizon and the Hubble radius for a homogeneous isotropic universe. Illustrate your discussion with the specific examples of the Einstein-de Sitter universe $\left(a \propto t^{2 / 3}\right.$ for $\left.t>0\right)$ and a de Sitter universe $\left(a \propto e^{H t}\right.$ with $H$ constant, $t>-\infty)$.

(b) Explain the horizon problem for a decelerating universe in which $a(t) \propto t^{\alpha}$ with $\alpha<1$. How can inflation cure the horizon problem?

(c) Consider a Tolman (radiation-filled) universe $\left(a(t) \propto t^{1 / 2}\right.$ ) beginning at $t_{\mathrm{r}} \sim$ $10^{-35} \mathrm{~s}$ and lasting until today at $t_{0} \approx 10^{17} \mathrm{~s}$. Estimate the horizon size today $d_{H}\left(t_{0}\right)$ and project this lengthscale backwards in time to show that it had a physical size of about 1 metre at $t \approx t_{\mathrm{r}}$.

Prior to $t \approx t_{\mathrm{r}}$, assume an inflationary (de Sitter) epoch with constant Hubble parameter $H$ given by its value at $t \approx t_{\mathrm{r}}$ for the Tolman universe. How much expansion during inflation is required for the observable universe today to have begun inside one Hubble radius?