A semiconductor has a valence energy band with energies $E \leqslant 0$ and density of states $g_{v}(E)$, and a conduction energy band with energies $E \geqslant E_{g}$ and density of states $g_{c}(E)$. Assume that $g_{v}(E) \sim A_{v}(-E)^{\frac{1}{2}}$ as $E \rightarrow 0$, and that $g_{c}(E) \sim A_{c}\left(E-E_{g}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$ as $E \rightarrow E_{g}$. At zero temperature all states in the valence band are occupied and the conduction band is empty. Let $p$ be the number of holes in the valence band and $n$ the number of electrons in the conduction band at temperature $T$. Under suitable approximations derive the result

$$p n=N_{v} N_{c} e^{-E_{g} / k T}$$

where

$$N_{v}=\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\pi} A_{v}(k T)^{\frac{3}{2}}, \quad N_{c}=\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\pi} A_{c}(k T)^{\frac{3}{2}} .$$

Briefly describe how a semiconductor may conduct electricity but with a conductivity that is strongly temperature dependent.

Describe how doping of the semiconductor leads to $p \neq n$. A $p n$ junction is formed between an $n$-type semiconductor, with $N_{d}$ donor atoms, and a $p$-type semiconductor, with $N_{a}$ acceptor atoms. Show that there is a potential difference $V_{n p}=\Delta E /|e|$ across the junction, where $e$ is the electron charge, and

$$\Delta E=E_{g}-k T \ln \frac{N_{v} N_{c}}{N_{d} N_{a}} .$$

Two semiconductors, one $p$-type and one $n$-type, are joined to make a closed circuit with two $p n$ junctions. Explain why a current will flow around the circuit if the junctions are at different temperatures.

[The Fermi-Dirac distribution function at temperature $T$ and chemical potential $\mu$ is $\frac{g(E)}{e^{(E-\mu) / k T}+1}$, where $g(E)$ is the number of states with energy $E$.

Note that $\int_{0}^{\infty} x^{\frac{1}{2}} e^{-x} d x=\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\pi}$.]